Sabado, Nobyembre 19, 2011

FILIPINO POETS

Clodualdo del Mundo

     Clodualdo del Mundo was born in Manila in 1911. Liwayway editor, critic, scholar, and head of TANIW (Taliba ng Inang Wika). Winner of a presidential award on literature and nationalism. Pioneer in modern drama, having presented the first modern Tagalog zarzuela, Anong Tamis ng mga Sandali sa Sariling Bayan, at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, and the first modern opera with Balagtas as hero. Wrote a great number of “novels” for television, radio, and the local cinema, receiving the FAMAS award for one of his stories. In poetry, he was among the first to write in free verse. His Ang Kanyang mga Mata (patterned after the Japanese haiku) is a gem in its lucidity and restraint. He passed away on October 5, 1977. Ang Kanyang Mga Mata is a short Tagalog love poem by Clodualdo del Mundo. The title is translated into English as "Her Eyes."

Rolando Tinio, National Artist


     This great Filipino poet was a National Artist for Theater and Literature and was in the first group of inductees into the Palanca Hall of Fame in 1995.  A native of Tondo, Manila, he was born in 1937 and died in 1997.
     Rolando (Santos) Tinio is famous for being a playwright, poet and translator. He was born in Tondo. Date of birth: March 5, 1997. Died in Manila in on July 7, 1997. Belonged to the anti-Romantic group of Tagalog poets known as the Bagay (Object) group who describe things and avoid giving interpretations. The Grandmother describes a senile, cranky grandmother; this poem gives a glimpse into the ways of a typical Filipino household at dusk when the Angelus prayer is announced. 
Poetry: Sitsit sa Kulilig (Whistling at Cicadas, 1972); Dunung-Dunungan (Pedantry, 1975);Kristal na Uniberso (Crystal Universe, 1989); Trick of Mirrors (1993) 
EXAMPLE OF POETRY TRANSLATION BY ROLANDO TINIO:
Tagalog-English translation of Florante at Laura excerpt

Virgilio Almario, National Artist

   
     This great Filipino poet is known by his pen name "Rio Alma."
     Virgilio Almario was born in San, Miguel, Bulacan. Date of birth: March 9, 1944. More known by his pen name “Rio Alma.” Also famous as a translator of poems, plays, and novels, particularly of the works of Jose Rizal. Won the Palanca Award for Poetry of 1970 for his Peregrinasyon at Iba pang mga Tula. Has a broad knowledge of world poetry particularly of the contemporary school. His themes range from nature and love to contemporary problems. His “Dolores” describes a teacher dreaming of her past.
POETRY COLLECTIONS of Virgilio Almario:

Kung Bakit Kailangan Ang Himala (University of the Philippines Press, 2007)

Tatlong Pasyon Para sa Ating Panahon (University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2007)

Teo Baylen

     This great Filipino poet is also known by the initials TSB. 
     Teo Baylen was born in Noveleta, Cavite, in 1904. The timeliness and timelessness of his work is attested to by such awards as the Cultural Heritage (1962-1963), the Palanca (1965, 1972), and the U.N. (1965). The symbols Pinsel at Pamansing (Brush and Fish Hook), the title of his 1967 poetry collection, suggest his method and his aim. His imagery is Biblical — of caves, wells, pastures, lambs, altars — and his goal is to point out (like T.S. Eliot) that our so-called modern civilization with its godless “isms” has succeeded only in creating a Frankenstinian monster. 
TAGALOG POETRY BY TEO S. BAYLEN:

Mga Sugat ng Siglo (Wounds of the Century)
Poetry collections: Tinig ng Darating, Pinsel at Pamansing, Kalabaw at Buffalo, RX 

Lamberto E. Antonio

     This great Filipino poet has won the Palanca award ten times!
     Lamberto E. Antonio was born in Manila in 1946. Former editor of the Univeristy of the East's newspaper Dawn. Has won the Palanca award ten times. His poetry has been termed “a savage blow against regular versification.” Also an essayist, translator and short-story writer. Wrote Insiang (1978), the very first Filipino movie shown at the Cannes Film Festival.
Pingkian at Apat Pang Aklat ng Tunggalian (1997)

Julian Cruz Balmaceda

This great Filipino writer was also known by his initials JCB.
     Julian Cruz Balmaceda was born in Orion, Bataan. Date of birth: 28th of January, 1885. Death: September 18, 1946. Better known as a playwright (penned “Who are You?”). Wrote “Wound of the Heart” when he was only fourteen years old. Won first place in a competition by the Bureau of Posts, 1928, for his “Ang Piso ni Anita.” Also known as a novelist with daring themes and deft characterization. A poet who loved contests of Tagalog poetry (he won an award for his defense of “Tomorrow” against the “Yesterday” and “Today” of Regalado and Ramos. Also published a few long poems such as "Sa Bayan ni Plaridel,” “Anak ni Eba,” etc. As a critic, author of “The Three Periods of Tagalog Drama” and made several linguistic studies. 
TAGALOG POEMS BY JULIAN CRUZ BALMACEDA:
Kung Mamili Ang Dalaga (How a Single Girl Chooses) - a humorous poem in Tagalog
O Sintang Lupa (Oh, Beloved Land) - his co-translation of the original Spanish lyrics of the Philippine national anthem

Jose Rizal, Filipino National Hero

His nickname was Pepe (from Giuseppe / Joseph).
     According to many, Jose Rizal is the greatest genius and hero of the Philippines. He wrote two novels that energized the nationalism movement and the revolution during the time of the Spaniards: Noli Me Tangere (The Social Cancer) and El Filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed). Like the works of Shakespeare, his writings are interpreted to have various meanings. Among the most ardent of his admirers are the Kababaihang Rizalista and The Knights of Rizal. His “Last Farewell” was written at Fort Santiago (and is said to have been smuggled out inside an oil lamp). Appreciated not only by Filipinos but also by other countries that use Spanish. He was born in Calamba, Laguna, on June 19, 1861. He was killed on December 30, 1896.
MOST FAMOUS POEM BY JOSE RIZAL:
Mi Ultimo Adios (written in Spanish, translated into English as Last Farewell and into Tagalog as Huling Paalam and also as Ang Aking Huling Paalam)

Jose Corazon de Jesus


He was known as the King of the Balagtasan. José Corazón de Jesús was born in Manila on November 22, 1896. He wrote Tagalog poetry during the American occupation of the Philippines (1901-1946). His most famous work is the Tagalog poemBayan Ko (My Country, 1929), which was used as lyrics for a patriotic song that became popular during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos in the 1980s. His pen name was Huseng Batute. He died on May 26, 1932, and is buried in Manila's North Cemetery.

TAGALOG POEMS BY JOSE CORAZON DE JESUS:
Ang Tren (The Train)
a Tagalog poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

Ang Posporo Ng Diyos (The Matchstick of God)
a metaphorical Tagalog poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

Bayan Ko (My Country)
a patriotic Tagalog poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

Kahit Saan (Wherever)
a Tagalog love poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

Ang Magandang Parol (The Beautiful Christmas Lantern)
a Tagalog poem about a beloved grandfather

Biyolin (Violin)
a metaphorical Tagalog poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

Agaw-Dilim (Twilight)
a Tagalog poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus
Itanong mo Sa Bituin (Ask the Stars)
a Tagalog love poem by Jose Corazon de Jesus

David Mamaril

This great Filipino poet is known as the Makatang Caviteño. 
     David T. Mamaril is a writer and declaimer of Tagalog poetry. He was born in Noveleta, Cavite, on March 17, 1918. Known as a journalist as well, he is among the few top poets in the country. His mother is from Cavite while his father is from Pangasinan. Initially wrote verses in English before writing in his own language. Served in the United States Navy before the outbreak of the Second World War. Wrote many portada poems for Liwayway and other magazines. Became a writer of Mabuhay-DMHM, and wrote weekly poems for two and a half years. His poems were anthologized in Parnasong Tagalog ni AGA and various schoolbooks. Won many literature awards, such as those from the Women’s International Guild, the Juan Luna Centennial, Rizal Centennial and many others. On April 2 (Balagtas Day), 1971, he was crowned King of Lyric Poetry and honored at the Philippine National Library.
TAGALOG POEMS by David T. Mamaril:

Panggabing Hangin (Evening Wind) is a plaintive, wistful poem that recalls the fact that the poet was a sailor in US navy before World War II.

Liham na Walang Titik; Ina, Oh, Ang Ina; Ang Unang Pag-ibig; Mga Tinik at Bulaklak; Maliit na Pag-ibig; Talulot ng Umaga; Kayumangging Manggagawa; Ikaw Rin; Ang mga Mata Mo; Hindi Kita Malimot; Walang Maliw; Pakikipagtunggali at Pag-ibig; Mga Liham ng Diyos 

Benigno Zamora

     Benigno Zamora was once chief of the section on Secondary Instruction and Supervision in Pilipino of the Department of City Schools. Former member of the Institute of National Language. Published his first short story at the age of eighteen. Wrote plays, zarzuelas, essays and lyrical poetry on themes that were popular yet charming (love, faith, and nostalgia for home). The last is found in “Ang Aking Tahanan,” composed while the poet worked as a spy against the Japanese during the Second World War II.


Jose Garcia Villa

José García Villa's works include Philippine Short Stories, best 25 stories of 1928 (1929); Footnote to Youth, short stories (1933); Many Voices, poems (1939); Poems (1941); Have Come Am Here, poems (1941); Selected Poems and New (1942); A Doveglion Book of Philippine Poetry (1962); The Anchored Angel (1999)
Lyrics 18
from Jose Garcia Villa 55 Poems

Be beautiful, noble, like the antique ant,
Who bore the storms as he bore the sun,
Wearing neither gown nor helmet,
Though he was archbishop and soldier:
Wore only his own flesh.

Salute characters with gracious dignity:
Though what these are is left to
Your own terms. Exact: the universe is
Not so small but these will be found
Somewhere: Exact: they will be found.
.
Speak with great moderation: but think
With great fierceness, burning passion:
Though what the ant thought
No annals reveal, nor his descendants
Break the seal.

Trace the tracelessness of the ant,
Every ant has reached this perfection.
As he comes, so he goes,
Flowing as water flows,
Essential but secret like a rose.

Bienvenido Lumbera, National Artist

Sadness

Sweet little songs I make,
Tunes so pure and full of love.
When lovers are timid and mute,
I give them voice, I make them bold.

Once I bid a word to come
And help me put together a poem.
From far and near, from wherever,
The word brought the poem warmth.

Each word I painstakingly refine,
And I wash the impoverished tongue.
I soothe and salve the cry of pain,
I banish any trace of tears.

But sadness I cannot send away-
Its little waves lap and leave,
Lap and leave the shore of the heart,
This moment a whisper, next a storm.



Cirilo Bautista

Pedagogic
Cirilo Bautista

I walked towards the falling woods
to teach the trees all that I could

of time and birth, the language of men,
the virtues of hate and loving.

They stood with their fingers flaming,
Listened to me with a serious mien:

I knew the footnotes, all the text,
my words were precise and correct-

I was sure that they were learning-
till one tree spoke, speaking in dolor,
to ask why I never changed color.


Jose Rizal

One of my Favorite Hero

Mi Ultimo Adios (Spanish Translation)
Jose Rizal y Alonso

Adios, Patria adorada, region del sol querida,
Perla del Mar de Oriente, nuestra perdido Eden!
A darte voy alegre la triste mustia vida,
Y fuera mas brillante, mas fresca, mas florida,
Tambien por ti la diera, la diera por tu bien.

En campos de batalla, luchando con delirio
Otros te dan sus vida sin dudas, sin pesar;
El sitio nada importa, cipres, laurel o lirio,
Cadalso o campo abierto, combate o cruel martirio,
Lo mismo es si lo piden La Patria y el hogar.

Yo muero cuando veo que el cielo se colora
Y al fin anuncia el dia tras lobrego capuz;
Si grana necesitas para tenir tu aurora,
Vierte la sangre mia, derramala en buen hora
Y dorela un reflejo de su naciente luz

Mis suenos cuando apenas muchaco adolescente,
Mis suenos cuando joven ya lleno de vigor,
Fueron el verte un dia, joya del Mar de Oriente
Secos los negros ojos, alta la tersa frente,
Sin ceno, sin arrugas, sin mancha de rubor.

Ensueno de mi vida, mi ardiente vivo anhelo,
Salud te grita el alma que pronto va a partir!
Salud! ah, que es hermoso caer por darte vuelo,
Morir por darte vidda, morir bajo tu cielo,
Y en tu encantada tierra la eternidad dormir.

Si sobre mi sepulcro vieres brotar un dia
Entre la espesa yerba sencilla, humilde flor,
Acercala a tus labios y besa el alma mia,
Y sienta yo en mi frente bajo la tumba fria
De tu ternura el soplo, de tu halito el calor.

Deja la luna verme con luz tranquila y suave;
Deja que el alba envie su resplandor fugaz,
Deja gemir al viento con su murmullo grave,
Y si desciende y posa sobre mi cruz un ave
Deja que el ave entone su cantico de paz.

Deja que el sol ardiendo las lluvias evapore
Y al cielo tornen puras con mi clamor en pos,
Deja que un ser amigo mi fin temprano llore
Y en las serenas tardes cuando por mi alguien ore
Ora tambien, Oh Patria, por mi descanso a Dios!

Ora por todos cuantos murieron sin ventura,
Por cuantos padecieron tormentos sin igual,
Por nuestros pobres madres que gimen su amargura;
Por huerfanos y viudas, por presos en tortura
Y ora por ti que veas tu redencion final.

Y cuando en noche oscura se envuelva el cementerio
Y solos solo muertos quedan velando alli
No turbes su reposo, no turbes el misterio
Tal vez acordes oigas de citara o salterio,
Soy yo, querida Patria, yo que te canto a ti.

Y cuando ya mi tumba de todos olvidada
No tenga cruz ni piedra que marquen su lugar,
Deja que la are el hombre, la esparza con la azada,
Y mis cenizas antes que vuelvan a nada,
El polvo de tu alfombra que vayan a formar.

Entonces nada importa me pongas en olvido,
Tu atmosfera, tu espacio, tus valles cruzare,
Vibrante y limpia nota sere para tu oido,
Aroma, luz, colores, rumor, canto, gemido
Constante repitiendo la esencia de mi fe.

Mi Patria idolatrada, dolor de mis dolores,
Querida Filipinas, oye el postrer adios.
Ahi, te dejo todo, mis padres, mis amores.
Voy donde no hay esclavos, verdugos ni opresores,
Donde la fe no mata, donde el que reina es Dios.

Adios, padres y hermanos, trozos del alma mia;
Amigos de la infancia en el perdido hogar,
Dad gracias que descanso del fatigoso dia.
Adios, dulce extranjera, mi amiga, mi alegria!
Adios, queridos seres. Morir es descansar.



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Survey of Philippine Poetry

            
       The history of Philippine poetry can be described in four major literary periods: precolonial (before 1521), Spanish colonial (1521–1898), U.S. colonial (1898–1946), and contemporary (1946–present). A strong indigenous oral tradition is interwoven with the Spanish and U.S. colonial influences of culture and language. Poetry has been written in Tagalog (the national language) and in the eighty-seven regional dialects, as well as in the Castilian Spanish of Miguel de Cervantes and Lope de Vega and the American English of Walt Whitman and Mark Twain.
Precolonial Poetry
An indigenous oral tradition of bugtong (riddles) and sawikain(proverbs) played a central part of community life in villages of precolonial Philippines. Short four-line poems called tanaga evolved from this oral tradition. Each line contained seven syllables, and at the heart of the poem was a cryptic metaphor called a talinghaga. Popular folk musical verse was divided into several categories: the diona, talindao, and auit (songs sung at home);indolanin and dolayanin (street songs); hila, soliranin, andmanigpasin (rowing songs); holohorlo and oyayi (cradle songs);ombayi (songs of sadness); omiguing (songs of tenderness);tagumpay (triumphant songs); dopayanin (boat songs); hiliriao(drinking songs); and diona (wedding songs). Through these verses the local history, politics, and culture were passed from generation to generation. The most skilled poets would memorize epic cycles that took two to four days to recite during all-night dramatic performances. Two examples of precolonial epics that survive today are Biag ni Lam-ang (Legend of Lamang) in Ilocano (a northern Luzon dialect) and Ibalon in Bicol (a southern Luzon dialect).
The Tanaga is a type of Filipino poem, consisting of four lines with seven syllables each with the same rhyme at the end of each line --- that is to say a 7-7-7-7 Syllabic verse, with an AABB rhyme scheme as in this example:
In the Tagalog original, using archaic orthography:
"Catitibay ca tolos
sacaling datnang agos!
aco’I momonting lomot
sa iyo,I popolopot."

In the modern Tagalog syllabication:
"Katitibay ka Tulos
Sakaling datnang agos!
Ako'y mumunting lumot
sa iyo'y pupulupot."

Translation:
"Oh be resilient you Stake
Should the waters be coming!
I shall cower as the moss
To you I shall be clinging."

Translation by Jardine Davies [1]
The above Tanaga is attributed to Friars Juan de Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar by Vim Nadera, and quoted them as saying “Poesia muy alta en tagalo, compuesta de siete silabas, y cuatro versos, llena de metafora.” (16th century) ("There is high poetry in Tagalog, composed of seven syllables and four verses with frequent metaphors.")
Like the Japanese haiku, Tanagas traditionally do not have any titles. They are poetic forms that should speak for themselves. Most are handed down by oral history, and containproverbial forms, moral lessons, and snippets of a code of ethics.
A poetic form similar to the tanaga is the ambahan. Unlike the ambahan whose length is indefinite, the tanaga is a compact seven-syllable quatrain. Poets test their skills at rhyme,meter and metaphor through the tanaga, not only because is it rhymed and measured, but also it exacts skillful use of words to create a puzzle that demands some kind of an answer.
It is almost considered a dying art form, but is currently being revived by the Cultural Center of the Philippines and National Commission of the Arts. Poetry groups, like thePinoyPoets, have been promoting Filipino poetry in English; the vernacular are also advocating the spread of this art form.

[edit]The modern Tanaga

The modern Tanaga still uses the 7777 syllable count, but rhymes range from dual rhyme forms: AABB, ABAB, ABBA; to freestyle forms such as AAAB, BAAA, or ABCD. Tanagas do not have titles traditionally because the Tanaga should speak for itself. However, moderns can opt to give them titles. [2]

[edit]Tanaga in other languages

While the Tanaga is originally intended to be written in Tagalog, it has been written in other languages such as English. Like-minded poets from all over the world are encouraged to utilize the Tanaga.

Poetry in the Spanish Colonial Period
With the arrival of the Spanish colonizers Ferdinand Magellan (1521) and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1571) came priests and their tradition of European Catholicism. Satanas (Satan) first appeared in Tagalog poetry, and the Christian themes of sin, guilt, and retribution became central concerns of the native population. In 1610, Tomas Pinpin, a Filipino poet working for the Dominicanprinting press in Bataan (a town outside Manila), wrote a bookentitled Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castila (A Book in Which Tagalogs May Study the Spanish Language). In this book Pinpin inserted six auit that had alternating Spanish and Tagalog lines. This type of bilingual poetry was written by a group called the Ladino Poets.
Metrical romances called awit or korido were also popular with the literary crowds. The most influential Tagalog romance of the period was the politically cryptic Florante at Laura (Florante and Laura; 1838), written by Francisco Baltazar, also known as Balagtas (1788–1862). The first book of poetry written in Spanish by a Filipino was Sampaguitas y Poesias Varias (Sampaguitas and Other Poems; 1880) by Pedro Paterno (1858–1911), which was printed in Spain. Paterno, Marcelo H. Del Pilar (1850–1896), Jose Rizal (1861–1896), and Isabelo De Los Reyes (1864–1918) were literary and political figures called Ilustrados (enlightened ones) who were living in Madrid and working to attain political freedom for the natives back in the Philippines. The first Filipino female poet to attain outside recognition was Leona Florentino (1849–1884), whose poems were exhibited in the Exposition Filipina in 1887 in Madrid and in the 1889 Exposition Internationale in Paris.
Poetry in the U.s. Colonial Period
In 1898, the U.S. president William McKinley (1843–1901) announced that it was the United States' moral duty to take possession of the Philippine Islands because the Filipinos had to be civilized, educated, and Christianized. After U.S. soldiers "pacified" the native population during the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), thousands of U.S. teachers were sent throughout the archipelago to teach the Filipinos the English language. In just a few years, English became the privileged form of expression for poets, prose writers, and dramatists.
The earliest Filipino poems written in English were published in 1905 in Berkeley, California, in The Filipino Students' Magazine,which was edited by pensionados (Philippine-American government scholars). The first book of poetry written in English, Azucena(1925) by Marcelo De Gracia Concepcion (1895–1954), was published in the United States by G. P. Putnam's Sons. The most influential Filipino poet, Jose Garcia Villa (1908–1997), lived most of his adult life in New York City. His books are Have Come, Am Here (Viking Press, 1942), Volume Two (New Directions, 1949), and Selected Poems and New (McDowell, Obolensky, 1958). Another early immigrant Filipino poet was Carlos Bulosan (1911–1956), who published political poems in American magazines likeThe New Yorker, Poetry (edited by Harriet Monroe) and Saturday Evening Post. In Manila in 1940, the Commonwealth Literary Prize in English poetry was given to Rafael Zulueta Da Costa (1915–1990) for Like the Molave and Other Poems. Native themes were well represented by such local poets as Fernando Ma Guerrero (1873–1929), Lope K. Santos (1879–1965), Jose Corazon De Jesus (1896–1932), Amado V. Hernandez (1903–1970), Alejandro G. Abadilla (1904–1969), Angela Manalang Gloria (1907–1999), and Trinidad Tarrosa Subido (1912–1993).
Contemporary Poetry
The declaration of formal independence from the United States on 4 July 1946 brought a sense of a new beginning to the people and poets of the Philippines. A generation of poets who studied at the famed Iowa Writer's Workshop at the University of Iowa in the 1950s—Bienvenido N. Santos (1911–1996), Ricaredo Demetillo (1920–1998), Dominador I. Ilio (b. 1913), and Edith Tiempo (b. 1919)—came back to the Philippines with the literary ideals of the American New Criticism. The 1970s and 1980s proved to be a politically aware era for Filipino poets, who were writing under the censorship of the dictatorial regime of Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986). As a reaction to the 1983 assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr., a leading anti-Marcos politician, several poets formed a literary organization called PLAC (Philippine Literary Arts Council) to protest the abuses of the government. One of its leading founders was Alfred A. Yuson (b. 1945), whose neorealist books of poems areDream of Knives (1986) and Trading in Mermaids (1993). Current trends in Filipino poetry are best exemplified by the pyrotechnic imagination of Eileen R. Tabios (b. 1960), whose book of poetryBeyond Life Sentences (1998) won the National Book Award given by the Manila Book Critics Circle. Her poems incorporate the American precision of Marianne Moore, the experimental joie de vivre of Paul Valery, and the imagistic intensity of Pablo Neruda.
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The Classic Poets

"Then there was neither Aught nor Nought, no air nor sky beyond.
What covered all? Where rested all? In watery gulf profound?
Nor death was then, nor deathlessness, nor change of night and day.
That One breathed calmly, self-sustained; nought else beyond it lay."
The earliest poetry is shrouded in the mists of time, we cannot be certain of dates from antiquity, but amongst the earliest poetry we have the immortal utterances of the Vedic Seers who offered eternal spiritual truths which still resonate today.
The other great ancient civilisation was that of Egypt with its rich tapestry of mysticism. However this ancient Egyptian poem speaks of the One God, in language reminiscent of the Bible and the Qu'ran.

God

GOD is the One everlasting,
perpetual, eternal, unending.
From endless time hath He been.
and shall be henceforth and for ever.
Closer to 0 AD the early Chinese Poets Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu offered the enigmatic classics of Taoism (Daoism) The Tao Te Ching in particular is one of the great spiritual texts.
In ancient Greece the great Homeric poets of Homer and Virgil produced the epics such as the Iliad, The Odyssey and The Aeneid. This early poetry was the cornerstone of Western Literature.
Indian Poets / Poetry BC

The Classic Poets BC (Homeric Poets)
Chinese Poets BC
In the traditional sense, a classic, is an old author canonised by admiration, and an authority in his particular style. At first the only true classics for the moderns were the ancients. The Greeks, by peculiar good fortune and natural enlightenment of mind, had no classics but themselves. They were at first the only classical authors for the Romans, who strove and contrived to imitate them. After the great periods of Roman literature, after Cicero and Virgil, the Romans in their turn had their classics, who became almost exclusively the classical authors of the centuries which followed.


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